Updated: 2-14-2007
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Updated: 2-14-2007
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Heart Health - Congestive Heart FactsWomen's Heart Attack Preventions
Get Free Information about Herb, Vitamin and Drug InteractionsHealth Notes is the leading provider of science-based information on healthy living. Gathered from scientific studies published in over 550 peer-reviewed medical and scientific journals. Visit Health Notes for drug interactions
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Congestive Heart Failure - The FactsBy the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Use your browser's "back" button to navigate the congestive heart failure menu. What is heart failure? Congestive Heart Failure - Data Fact SheetAn estimated 4.8 million Americans have congestive heart failure (CHF). Increasing prevalence, hospitalizations, and deaths have made CHF a major chronic condition in the United States. It often is the end stage of cardiac disease. Half of the patients diagnosed with CHF will be dead within 5 years. Each year, there are an estimated 400,000 new cases. The annual number of deaths directly from CHF increased from 10,000 in 1968 to 42,000 in 1993, with another 219,000 related to the condition. What is heart failure?Heart failure occurs when the heart loses its ability to pump enough blood through the body. Usually, the loss in pumping action is a symptom of an underlying heart problem, such as coronary artery disease. The term heart failure suggests a sudden and complete stop of heart activity. But, actually, the heart does not suddenly stop. Rather, heart failure usually develops slowly, often over years, as the heart gradually loses its pumping ability and works less efficiently. Some people may not become aware of their condition until symptoms appear years after their heart began its decline. How serious the condition is depends on how much pumping capacity the heart has lost. Nearly everyone loses some pumping capacity as he or she ages. But the loss is significantly more in heart failure and often results from a heart attack or other disease that damages the heart. The severity of the condition determines the impact it has on a person's life. At one end of the spectrum, the mild form of heart failure may have little effect on a person's life; at the other end, severe heart failure can interfere with even simple activities and prove fatal. Between those extremes, treatment often helps people lead full lives. But all forms of heart failure, even the mildest, are a serious health problem, which must be treated. To improve their chance of living longer, patients must take care of themselves, see their physician regularly, and closely follow treatments. Is there only one type of heart failure?The term congestive heart failure is often used to describe all patients with heart failure. In reality, congestion (the buildup of fluid) is just one feature of the condition and does not occur in all patients. There are two main categories of heart failure although within each category, symptoms and effects may differ from patient to patient. The two categories are: Systolic heart failure--This occurs when the heart's ability to contract decreases. The heart cannot pump with enough force to push a sufficient amount of blood into the circulation. Blood coming into the heart from the lungs may back up and cause fluid to leak into the lungs, a condition known as pulmonary congestion. Diastolic heart failure--This occurs when the heart has a problem relaxing. The heart cannot properly fill with blood because the muscle has become stiff, losing its ability to relax. This form may lead to fluid accumulation, especially in the feet, ankles, and legs. Some patients may have lung congestion. How common is congestive heart failure?Between 2 to 3 million Americans have heart failure, and 400,000 new cases are diagnosed each year. The condition is slightly more common among men than women and is twice as common among African Americans as whites. Heart failure causes 39,000 deaths a year and is a contributing factor in another 225,000 deaths. The death rate attributed to heart failure rose by 64 percent from 1970 to 1990, while the death rate from coronary heart disease dropped by 49 percent during the same period. Heart failure mortality is about twice as high for African Americans as whites for all age groups. In a sense, heart failure's growing presence as a health problem reflects the Nation's changing population: More people are living longer. People age 65 and older represent the fastest growing segment of the population, and the risk of heart failure increases with age. The condition affects 1 percent of people age 50, but about 5 percent of people age 75. What causes congestive heart failure?As stated, the heart loses some of its blood-pumping ability as a natural consequence of aging. However, a number of other factors can lead to a potentially life-threatening loss of pumping activity. As a symptom of underlying heart disease, heart failure is closely associated with the major risk factors for coronary heart disease: smoking, high cholesterol levels, hypertension (persistent high blood pressure), diabetes and abnormal blood sugar levels, and obesity. A person can change or eliminate those risk factors and thus lower their risk of developing or aggravating their heart disease and heart failure. Among prominent risk factors, hypertension (high blood pressure) and diabetes are particularly important. Uncontrolled high blood pressure increases the risk of heart failure by 200 percent, compared with those who do not have hypertension. Moreover, the degree of risk appears directly related to the severity of the high blood pressure. Persons with diabetes have about a two- to eightfold greater risk of heart failure than those without diabetes. Women with diabetes have a greater risk of heart failure than men with diabetes. Part of the risk comes from diabetes' association with other heart failure risk factors, such as high blood pressure, obesity, and high cholesterol levels. However, the disease process in diabetes also damages the heart muscle. The presence of coronary disease is among the greatest risks for heart failure. Muscle damage and scarring caused by a heart attack greatly increase the risk of heart failure. Cardiac arrhythmias, or irregular heartbeats, also raise heart failure risk. Any disorder that causes abnormal swelling or thickening of the heart sets the stage for heart failure. In some people, heart failure arises from problems with heart valves, the flap-like structures that help regulate blood flow through the heart. Infections in the heart are another source of increased risk for heart failure. A single risk factor may be sufficient to cause heart failure, but a combination of factors dramatically increases the risk. Advanced age adds to the potential impact of any heart failure risk. Finally, genetic abnormalities contribute to the risk for certain types of heart disease, which in turn may lead to heart failure. However, in most instances, a specific genetic link to heart failure has not been identified. What are the symptoms congestive heart failure?A number of symptoms are associated with heart failure, but none is specific for the condition. Perhaps the best known symptom is shortness of breath ("dyspnea"). In heart failure, this may result from excess fluid in the lungs. The breathing difficulties may occur at rest or during exercise. In some cases, congestion may be severe enough to prevent or interrupt sleep. Fatigue or easy tiring is another common symptom. As the heart's pumping capacity decreases, muscles and other tissues receive less oxygen and nutrition, which are carried in the blood. Without proper "fuel," the body cannot perform as much work, which translates into fatigue. Fluid accumulation, or edema, may cause swelling of the feet, ankles, legs, and occasionally, the abdomen. Excess fluid retained by the body may result in weight gain, which sometimes occurs fairly quickly. Persistent coughing is another common sign, especially coughing that regularly produces mucus or pink, blood-tinged sputum. Some people develop raspy breathing or wheezing. Because heart failure usually develops slowly, the symptoms may not appear until the condition has progressed over years. The heart hides the underlying problem by making adjustments that delay--but do not prevent--the eventual loss in pumping capacity. The heart adjusts, or compensates, in three ways to cope with and hide the effects of heart failure:
By making these adjustments, or compensating, the heart can temporarily make up for losses in pumping ability, sometimes for years. However, compensation has its limits. Eventually, the heart cannot offset the lost ability to pump blood, and the signs of heart failure appear.
How do doctors diagnose congestive heart failure?In many cases, physicians diagnose congestive heart failure during a physical examination. Readily identifiable signs are shortness of breath, fatigue, and swollen ankles and feet. The physician also will check for the presence of risk factors, such as hypertension, obesity, and a history of heart problems. Using a stethoscope, the physician can listen to a patient breathe and identify the sounds of lung congestion. The stethoscope also picks up the abnormal heart sounds indicative of heart failure. If neither the symptoms nor the patient's history point to a clear-cut diagnosis, the physician may recommend any of a variety of laboratory tests, including, initially, an electrocardiogram, which uses recording devices placed on the chest to evaluate the electrical activity of a patient's heartbeat. Echocardiography is another means of evaluating heart function from outside the body. Sound waves bounced off the heart are recorded and translated into images. The pictures can reveal abnormal heart size, shape, and movement. Echocardiography also can be used to calculate a patient's ejection fraction, a measure of the amount of blood pumped out when the heart contracts. Another possible test is the chest x ray, which also determines the heart's size and shape, as well as the presence of congestion in the lungs. Tests help rule out other possible causes of symptoms. The symptoms of heart failure can result when the heart is made to work too hard, instead of from damaged muscle. Conditions that overload the heart occur rarely and include severe anemia and thyrotoxicosis (a disease resulting from an overactive thyroid gland).
What treatments are available?Heart failure caused by an excessive workload is curable by treating the primary disease, such as anemia or thyrotoxicosis. Also curable are forms caused by anatomical problems, such as a heart valve defect. These defects can be surgically corrected. However, for the common forms of heart failure--those due to damaged heart muscle--no known cure exists. But treatment for these forms may be quite successful. The treatment seeks to improve patients' quality of life and length of survival through lifestyle change and drug therapy. Patients can minimize the effects of heart failure by controlling the risk factors for heart disease. Obvious steps include quitting smoking, losing weight if necessary, abstaining from alcohol, and making dietary changes to reduce the amount of salt and fat consumed. Regular, modest exercise is also helpful for many patients, though the amount and intensity should be carefully monitored by a physician. But, even with lifestyle changes, most heart failure patients must take medication. Many patients receive two or more drugs. Several types of drugs have proven useful in the treatment of heart failure:
Results of recent studies have placed more emphasis on the use of drugs known as angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. Several large studies have indicated that ACE inhibitors improve survival among heart failure patients and may slow, or perhaps even prevent, the loss of heart pumping activity. Originally developed as a treatment for hypertension, ACE inhibitors help heart failure patients by, among other things, decreasing the pressure inside blood vessels. As a result, the heart does not have to work as hard to pump blood through the vessels. Patients who cannot take ACE inhibitors may get a nitrate and/or a drug called hydralazine, each of which helps relax tension in blood vessels to improve blood flow. Sometimes, heart failure is life-threatening. Usually, this happens when drug therapy and lifestyle changes fail to control its symptoms. In such cases, a heart transplant may be the only treatment option. However, candidates for transplantation often have to wait months or even years before a suitable donor heart is found. Recent studies indicate that some transplant candidates improve during this waiting period through drug treatment and other therapy, and can be removed from the transplant list. Transplant candidates who do not improve sometimes need mechanical pumps, which are attached to the heart. Called left ventricular assist devices (LVADs), the machines take over part or virtually all of the heart's blood-pumping activity. However, current LVADs are not permanent solutions for heart failure but are considered bridges to transplantation. An experimental surgical procedure for severe heart failure is available at a few U.S. medical centers. The procedure, called cardiomyoplasty, involves detaching one end of a muscle in the back, wrapping it around the heart, and then suturing the muscle to the heart. An implanted electric stimulator causes the back muscle to contract, pumping blood from the heart.
Common Heart Failure MedicationsListed below are some of the medications prescribed for heart failure. Not all medications are suitable for all patients, and more than one drug may be needed.Also, the list provides the full range of possible side effects for these drugs. Not all patients will develop these side effects. If you suspect that you are having a side effect, alert your physician.
ACE
Inhibitors. Side effects may include coughing, skin rashes, fluid retention, excess potassium in the bloodstream, kidney problems, and an altered or lost sense of taste. Digitalis. Side effects may include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, diarrhea, confusion, and new heartbeat irregularities. Diuretics. Side effects may include loss of too much potassium, weakness, muscle cramps, joint pains, and impotence. Hydralazine. Side effects may include headaches, rapid heartbeat, and joint pain. Nitrates.
Can a person live with heart failure?Heart failure is one of the most serious symptoms of heart disease. About two-thirds of all patients die within 5 years of diagnosis. However, some live beyond 5 years, even into old age. The outlook for an individual patient depends on the patient's age, severity of heart failure, overall health, and a number of other factors. As heart failure progresses, the effects can become quite severe, and patients often lose the ability to perform even modest physical activity. Eventually, the heart's reduced pumping capacity may interfere with routine functions, and patients may become unable to care for themselves. The loss in functional ability can occur quickly if the heart is further weakened by heart attacks or the worsening of other conditions that affect heart failure, such as diabetes and coronary heart disease. Heart failure patients also have an increased risk of sudden death, or cardiac arrest, caused by an irregular heartbeat. To improve the chances of surviving with heart failure, patients must take care of themselves. Patients must:
Patients with heart failure also should:
Even with the best care, heart failure can worsen, but patients who don't take care of themselves are almost writing themselves a prescription for poor health. The best defense against heart failure is the prevention of heart disease. Almost all of the major coronary risk factors can be controlled or eliminated: smoking, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity.
What is the outlook for heart failure?Within the past decade, knowledge of heart failure has improved dramatically but, clearly, much more remains to be learned. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) supports numerous research projects aimed at building on what is already known about heart failure and at uncovering new knowledge about its process, diagnosis, and treatment. NHLBI research priorities for heart failure include:
Making the most of your doctor visitHere are some points you may want to discuss with your doctor. Don't hesitate to ask questions to clarify points. Also, ask your doctor to rephrase a reply you cannot understand. You may want to take a family member or friend to the appointment with you to help you better understand and remember what's said.
Briefly describe your symptoms, even those you feel may not be important. You may want to keep a list so you will remember them. Tell the doctor all of the medications you take--including over-the-counter drugs--and any problems you may be having with them. Be sure you understand all of the doctor's instructions--especially for medications. Know what drug to take when, how often, and in what amount. Find out what side effects are possible from any drug the doctor prescribes for you. Ask the meaning of any medical term you don't understand. If, after your appointment, you still have questions or are uncertain about your treatment, call the doctor's office to get the information you need. A question for your pharmacistYour pharmacist is a good resource for information about medications. Ask if any drug you're taking interacts badly with certain foods or with other drugs, including nonprescription ones. Your pharmacist also can help you understand product package inserts and label instructions.Heart GlossaryAngiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor--A drug used to decrease pressure inside blood vessels. Arrhythmia--An irregular heartbeat. Cardiomyoplasty--A surgical procedure that involves detaching one end of a back muscle and attaching it to the heart. An electric stimulator causes the muscle to contract to pump blood from the heart. Congestive heart failure--A heart disease condition that involves loss of pumping ability by the heart, generally accompanied by fluid accumulation in body tissues, especially the lungs. Diastolic heart failure--Inability of the heart to relax properly and fill with blood as a result of stiffening of the heart muscle. Dyspnea--Shortness of breath. Echocardiography--Recording sound waves bounced off the heart to produce images of the heart. Edema--Abnormal fluid accumulation in body tissues. Electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG)--Measurement of electrical activity associated with heartbeats. Heart failure--Loss of blood-pumping ability by the heart. Left ventricular assist device--A mechanical device used to increase the heart's pumping ability. Pulmonary congestion (or edema)--Fluid accumulation in the lungs. Sudden cardiac death--Cardiac arrest caused by an irregular heartbeat. Systolic heart failure--Inability of the heart to contract with enough force to pump adequate amounts of blood through the body. Valves--Flap-like structures that control the direction of blood flow through the heart. Q & A For Your Doctor VisitGoing to the doctor can be a nervous time. It may be hard to remember everything you want to ask and everything you hear. It helps to prepare a list of important questions. Use the spaces below to list questions you want answered. Then take this fact sheet with you to your appointment so you can record the answers. Before you leave the doctor's office, be sure you understand your condition and its treatment, including any medications. U.S. DEPARTMENT
OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES |
Congestive Heart Failure - Omega-3 Fish OilBy Decker Weiss: NMD, AACVPRIn the 1980s, researchers first began noticing the native Inuit (Eskimo) populations of Greenland and Alaska had a very low occurrence of heart disease despite a very high-fat diet. The researchers discovered the oils in the deepwater fish these people consumed (and continue to eat to this day) are rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.1,2 These early scientific observations spawned extensive study and led to the current understanding of how important fish oil is to heart health. How can a high-fat diet be good for my heart?While we generally think of fats as harmful, there are fats that actually have health benefits. The key is to learn the difference between the “good” fats and the “bad” ones. All natural fats are mixtures of different types of fatty acids. Fatty acids are made up of carbon atoms comprised of short or long chains. Each carbon atom has four bonding sites (similar to imaginary arms) where it can attach to other atoms. If all binding sites are attached to hydrogen atoms, the fatty acid chain is saturated.3,4 If some binding sites on a carbon atom are attached to a neighboring carbon (made with a double bond), the fatty acid chain is unsaturated. If a fatty acid chain has two or more double bonds, it is called polyunsaturated.4,5 Polyunsaturated fatty acids are further classified by where on the carbon chain the double bond is located. Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid with the first double bond located at the sixth carbon atom from the omega end; thus, it is an omega-6 fatty acid.4,5 Linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid, has its first double bond at the third carbon from the omega end. Both linoleic and linolenic fatty acids are essential fatty acids. These polyunsaturated fatty acids are needed to sustain life. However, while some fatty acids can be made in the body, these cannot. Both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids must be consumed in the diet.4,5 The daily requirement for linoleic fatty acid is two teaspoons, which is easily met in the American diet. Linoleic acid is found in commercial baked goods, prepared foods, vegetable oils, and margarine. These foods are abundant and are often consumed in large amounts.3 What’s different regarding omega-3 fatty acids?Omega-3 fatty acids are notably absent from the American diet. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which is derived from linolenic acid, is the main omega-3 fatty acid in fish. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is yet another omega-3 fatty acid found in fish. Both EPA and DHA are responsible for many impressive health benefits.4,5 Fatty acids are an important component in cell membranes. The cell membrane surrounds the cell and controls what enters and exits the cell, protecting the cell. When fatty acids are saturated with hydrogen atoms, their chains are rigid and straight. When cell membranes are composed of saturated fatty acid chains, they are closely packed together, creating cell membranes that are rigid and stiff.4 Polyunsaturated fatty acids have double bonds between carbon atoms. These double bonds allow for a flexible, curved structure. When cell membranes are composed of polyunsaturated fatty acids, they are flexible and elastic. Cell membranes that are flexible are healthier than rigid and stiff cell membranes.4,5 Human hearts that are made up of cells with rigid membranes are more susceptible to disease. The good news is that hearts comprised of flexible membranes are healthier and less likely to develop heart disease.5 What kind of heart problems can fish oil help?There has been a vast number of clinical trials and scientific study on the effect of omega-3 fatty acids and heart disease. Impressive results have been noted in lowering the risk of heart attacks and reducing blood pressure. One recent study examined the blood levels of men who lived in Finland, where fish consumption is fairly high. The men who had the highest levels of DHA and EPA had a 44% reduced risk of acute heart attacks compared to men who had the lowest levels of these omega-3 fatty acids.6 The effects of dietary fish and weight reduction also were examined in a study of overweight people with high blood pressure (hypertension). The subjects were divided into four groups. One group served as the control and did not receive treatment. The second group ate a daily meal of fish that contained 3.65 grams of omega-3 fatty acids. The third group went on a weight-reduction diet. And, the fourth group combined the meal of daily fish and the weight-reduction diet. Effects on blood pressure were greatest in the combined group. Their blood pressures dropped more than 13 points, much more than the other groups.7 Another study of blood pressure and omega-3 fatty acids determined supplementation with EPA and DHA was effective in reducing the blood pressure in individuals with hypertension. Blood pressures dropped by six points during supplementation, but returned to baseline after the study was completed.8 Omega-3 fatty acids also been shown to reduce risk factors that can lead to heart attacks. Two groups of men living in Portugal were compared. One group lived in a farming village and had a low fish intake. The other group was made up of fishermen who normally ate a diet high in fish. The group in the fishing village had lower serum triglyceride levels and total cholesterol levels, both heart attack risk factors.9 Women who have gone through menopause have a higher risk of heart attacks than other women. It was determined that fish oil supplements lowered serum triglyceride levels and increased highdensity cholesterol levels. The study concluded fish oil supplementation reduced the risk of heart attacks by 27% in postmenopausal women.10 Are there any other diseases fish oil might help?Research has shown fish oil may be beneficial in combatting several diseases. Studies have shown omega-3 fatty acids can reduce the risk of strokes11, improve asthma in children12, relieve depression13, and increase the survival time of individuals with cancer.14-18 In addition, use of fish oil supplements improved nutritional status and increased weight in cancer patients who have lost a significant amount of weight.19-20 There have also been some impressive results in treating patients with systemic lupus erythematosus21, rheumatoid arthritis22, and multiple sclerosis.23 Couldn’t eating more fish provide the same benefits?Not all species of fish have high levels of DHA and EPA. Anchovies, salmon, mackerel, tuna, sardines, and herring are the best sources of these omega-3 fattyacids. 3 To achieve the most benefit from eating fish, choices should be made from this list. Native Inuit, the peoples that were initially the focus of the studies on fish oil, often consume four to five grams of EPAs daily. This equals one and one-half to three pounds of fish3 and is much more than many people would care to eat. Thankfully, using a fish oil supplement can provide these beneficial omega-3 fatty acids in an easy-to-take form. I have heard that some fish oil supplements have artificially increased the amounts of DHA and EPA in their fish oil. Does this make the supplements even more beneficial?Fish oils may naturally contain DHA and EPA, or they may be modified to artificially boost the concentration of DHA and EPA. Recent Norwegian studies have demonstrated that modified fish oils are the least stable and most likely to become rancid.24,25 An unstable fish oil can actually cause an increase in free radical formation in the blood and tissues. Free radicals can contribute to less flexible blood vessels that may occur with aging or disease. Additionally, the overprocessing of fish oil supplements can result in a loss of key nutrients and thus decrease their effectiveness.24-26 I have heard that toxins in the waters from which fish are harvested are also found in these fish. Aren’t the oils that come from these fish also contaminated?Purity in fish oil supplements is very important. Fish oil supplement manufacturers should be able to provide documentation of contaminant levels in their products. Supplements should contain no detectable dioxin (a widely used toxic preservative), DDT (a toxic insecticide), PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls), or heavy metals such as mercury and lead. How can I make sure fish oil capsules will remain fresh?Choose a fish oil that’s not artificially modified to boost the concentration of DHA and EPA and that has added natural antioxidants, including vitamin E, to prevent rancidity and provide superior taste and efficacy.27 Refrigerating the container after opening is often recommended. ConclusionFish oil supplements are a rich source of the polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA. These fatty acids lower blood pressure, and reduce the risk of heart attacks and strokes. In addition, EPA and DHA may benefit individuals with asthma, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and cancer. Fish oil supplements provide a natural yet powerful choice in personal health improvement. References:1. Kromhout D, Bosschieter EB, de Lezenne Coulander C., et al. The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1985 May 9;312(19):1205-9. 2. Kromann N, Green A. Epidemiological studies in the Upernavik district, Greenland. Incidence of some chronic diseases 1950-1974. Acta Med Scand. 1980;208(5):401-6. 3. Pleuss J. Fats. In: Porth CM. Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott; 1998:1249. 4. Galperin C, German BJ, Gershwin ME. Omega fatty acids. In: Shils ME, Olson JA, Shine M, Ross AC, Eds. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. 9th ed. Baltimore, Md: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999: 1346-1347. 5. Fats: saturated and unsaturated. In: Grodner M, Anderson SL, DeYoung S. Foundations and Clinical Applications of Nutrition: A Nursing Approach. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 2000:118-122. 6. Rissanen T, Voutilainen S, Nyyssonen K, Lakka TA, Salonen JT. Fish oil-derived fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid and decosapentaenoic acid, and the risk of acute coronary events: the Kuopio ischaemic heart disease risk factor study. Circulation. 2000;102:2677-2679. 7. Boa DQ, Mori TA, Burke V, Puddley IB, Beilin LJ. Effects of dietary fish and weight reduction on ambulatory blood pressure in overweight hypertensives. Hypertension. 1998;32:710-717. 8. Prisco D, Paniccia R, Bandinelli B, et al. Effect of medium-term supplementation with a moderate dose of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure in mild hypertensive patients. Thromb Res. 1998;91:105-112. 9. Torres IC, Mira L, Ornelas CP, Melim A. Study of the effects of dietary fish intake on serum lipids and lipoproteins in two populations with different dietary habits. Br J Nutr. 2000;83:371-379. 10. Stark KD, Park EJ, Maines VA, Holub BJ. Effect of a fish-oil concentrate on serum lipids in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy in a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:389-394. 11. Iso H, Rexrode KM, Stampfer MJ, et al. Intake of fish and omega-3 fatty acids and risk of stroke in women. JAMA. 2001;285:304-312. 12. Nagakura T, Matsuda S, Shichijyo H, Hata K. Dietary supplementation with fish oil rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with bronchial asthma. Eur Respir J. 2000;16:861-865. 13. Mischoulon D, Fava M. Docosahexanoic acid and omega-3 fatty acids in depression. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2000;23:785-794. 14. Bondreau MD, Sohn KH, Rhee SH, Hunt JD, Hwang DH. Suppression of tumor cell growth both in nude mice and in culture by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: mediation through cyclooxygenase-independent pathways. Cancer Res. 2001;61:1386-1391. 15. Chen ZY, Istfan NW. Docosahexaenoic acid is a potent inducer of apoptosis in HT-29 colon cancer cells. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2000;63:301-308. |
Congestive Heart Failure Prevention - CoQ10According to one scientific study, CoQ10 has been shown to:*
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